THE TREATMENT OF HISTORY IN "LA PRINCESSE DE CLÈVES"
Introduction
The meticulous historical research of Mme de Lafayette
Critics such as Henri Chamard and Gustave Rudler have shown the great amount of meticulous historical research which went into the composition of the novel. Documenting herself from histories of the Valois dynasty such as Mezeray’s history of France - Père Anselme's History of the Royal Family and from the memoirs of Brantôme and Castelnau, she recreated with scrupulous authenticity the major historical events against which her story is unfolded.
She faithfully reconstructs as well from these sources descriptions of the court ceremonies - the nuptials of Claude de France, the king's daughter, with the Duc de Lorraine (where Nemours and the Princess first meet) see page 7 Summary notes.
Later in the story, she describes the tournament at which Henri II was mortally wounded. (Page 28 Summary notes)
The pleasure which she gets from researching and interpreting history is seen in her biography of Anne Boleyn. She traces with great clarity the life of the tragic queen from her birth in England, then her years in the French court. She relates her return to England, with her years as mistress of Henry VIII then his wife and Queen. Finally she tells the story of her rejection and execution. Perhaps to the surprise of students of English history identifies as the most evil protagonist in these events Lady Rochford, the sister-in-law of Anne Boleyn. The inclusion of this history at such length has little justification in the novel but demonstrates the fascination of history felt by the authoress.
A The historical events described in the novel
The events which occur during the novel take place in a little over a year.
The last months of the reign of Henry II who was killed in 1559 - and the first months of the reign of his sickly son Francis II husband of Mary Stuart.The historical events traced in the book are:
(A) European affairs
1 The peace negotiations at Cercamp to prepare a peace treaty with the Emperor - Spain and England under Mary Tudor.(Summary Notes Page 3)
Negotiations Interrupted by the death of Mary Tudor.2 The peace negotiations, resumed later at Cateau-Cambresis by the Marechal of St Andre (Summary Notes Page 10 and finally concluded (Summary Notes Page 14) by the terms of which Princess Elizabeth of France is to marry Philip II of Spain. The King's sister is to marry the Duke of Savoy and the marriage to be celebrated with magnificent court festivities including a tournament - at which the King is to enter the lists as a champion. (Summary Notes Page 16)
3 The regal ceremonies described: (Mme de Lafayette uses the accounts of the historians Anselme and Godefroy)
a The arrival of Philip's proxy for the marriage (Summary Notes Page 25)
Les préparatifs pour le mariage de Madame étoient achevés. Le duc d'Albe arriva pour l'épouser: il fut reçu avec toute la magnificence et toutes les cérémonies qui se pouvoient faire dans une pareille occasion. Le roi envoya au-devant de lui le prince de Condé, les cardinaux de Lorraine et de Guise, les ducs de Lorraine, de Ferrare, d'Aumale, de Bouillon, de Guise et de Nemours. Ils avoient plusieurs gentilshommes, et grand nombre des pages vêtus de leurs livrées. Le roi attendit lui-même le duc d'Albe à la premiere porte du Louvre, avec les deux cents gentilshommes, servants, et le connétable à leur tête. ……. L'on fit de grandes assemblées au Louvre pour faire voir au duc d'Albe et au prince d'Orange, qui l'avoit accompagné, les beautés de la cour.b .( Summary Notes pages 27 -28)
The magnificence of the wedding ceremony –
Le matin, le duc d'Albé qui n étoit jamais vêtu que fort simplement, mit un habit de drap d'or, mêlé de couleur de feu, de jaune et de noir, tout couvert de pierreries, et il avoit une couronne fermée sur la tête. Le prince d'Orange, habillé aussi magnifiquement, avec ses livrées et tous les Espagnols suivis des leurs, vinrent prendre le duc d'Albe à l'hôtel de Villeroi, où il étoit logé, et partirent, marchant quatre à quatre, pour venir à l'Évêché. Sitôt qu'il fut arrivé, on alla par ordre à l'église : le roi menoit Madame, qui avoit aussi une couronne fermée, et sa robe portée par mesdemoiselles de Montpensier et de Longueville; la reine marchoit ensuite, mais sans couronne. Après elle, venoit la reine dauphine, Madame, soeur du roi, madame de Lorraine, et la reine de Navarre, leurs robes portées par des princesses. Les reines et les princesses avoient toutes leurs filles magnifiquement habillées des mêmes couleurs qu'elles étoient vêtues; en sorte que l'on connoissoit à qui etoient les filles par la couleur de leurs habits. On monta sur l'échafaud qui étoit préparé dans l'église, et l'on fit la cérémonie des mariages. On retourna ensuite dîner à l'Évêché; et, sur les cinq heures, on en partit pour aller au Palais, où se faisoit le festin, et où le Parlement, les cours souveraines et la Maison de ville étoient priés d'assister. Le roi, les reines, les princes et princesses mangèrent sur la table de marbre dans la grande salle du Palais, le duc d'Albe assis auprès de la nouvelle reine d'Espagne. Au-dessous des degrés de la table de marbre, et à la main droite du roi, étoit une table pour les ambassadeurs, les archevêques et les chevaliers de l'ordre; et, de l'autre côté, une table pour messieurs du Parlement.Le duc de Guise, vêtu d'une robe de drap d'orfrisé servoit le roi de grand maître; M. le prince de Condé, de panetier; et le duc de Nemours, d'échanson. Après que les tables furent levées, le bal commença; il fut interrompu par des ballets et des machines extraordinaires
The tournament - and the tragic death of Henry
Enfin, le jour du tournoi arriva. Les reines se rendirent dans les galeries et sur les échafauds qui leur avoient été destinés. Les quatre tenants parurent au bout de la lice, avec une quantité de chevaux et de livrées, qui faisoient le plus magnifique spectacle qui eût jamais paru en France.
B Court Politics
The rivalry of Queen and Mistress
1 The political power of the King's mistress Diane de Poitiers –
At the start of the book we are told that the king's love for her is just as strong after twenty years.
(Page 1 -Summary notes)From Mme de Chartres - Page 6 we have a picture of how the King's mistress has ruthlessly used her position to further her own glory and power and that she has deceived him constantly with other men.
(Page 7 Summary notes)2. The secret resentment of the Queen - Catherine de Medici
At the start we are told that she appears to sanction the King's liaison with Diane de Poitier.. il semblait qu’elle souffrait sans peine l’attachement du roi pour la duchesse de Valentinois, et elle n’en témoignait aucune jalousie; mais elle avait une si profonde dissimulation, qu,il était difficile de juger de ses sentiments; et la politique l’obligeait d’approcher cette duchesse de sa personne, afin d’en approcher aussi le roi.
(Page 1 -Summary notes)
However the Vidame learns her bitter resentment. Catherine is of a violently jealous nature and is building up her power through the support of the Cardinal of Lorraine.
(Page 19 -Summary notes)3. The reassertion of power by the Queen- Catherine of Medici
Henri had previously relied upon the Constable for the running of the country, and Queen Catherine regarded him as her enemy (Page 19 Summary notes)However the Queen was reasserting her power through her alliance with the second major power faction at the court: the House of Guise.
a) Diane de Poitiers was becoming anxious at the growing influence of the Duc de Guise and had delayed the marriage of their niece, Mary Stuart, to the Dauphin as far as she could. Above all she hated his brother, the Cardinal de Lorraine, who had treated her with disrespect and who, she realised, was now becoming close to the Queen.
(Page 2 Summary notes)The Duc de Guise and his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine increased their power when this marriage took place and Mary Stuart became la Reine Dauphine. Allied to Catherine of Medici, they are able to take over control of the country after Henri's death - driving out Diane de Poitiers and excluding the Constable from the court (Page 28 Summary notes).
(C ) The predominance of characters taken from history
Practically every character that appears in this novel is based on a real historical model. This even extends to such relatively insignificant figures as Nemour's sister, Mme de Mercoeur. The only complete fictional inventions are the heroine and her mother Mme de Chartres. (
In fact one critic believes that the heroine, as well, was based on a real person. He identifies Anne d'Este, who was courted by Nemours while she was married to the Duc de Guise. Anne married Nemours after her husband's death.
(D) How accurate is the history that Mme de Lafayette relates?
1 Mme de Lafayette makes minor adjustments to history (but these are not important)
Example (i)
History states that Nevers had three sons. It is the second son Jacques whom Mme de Lafayette makes Prince de Clèves. In fact he died in 1564. She has him die in 1560.Example (ii)
Nemours sees the Princesse de Clèves after the death of her mother. The weather is hot and she is on her bed. This is a slip because we have just been told of the peace of Cateau-Cambresis - which took place in March.Example (iii)
Inaccurate biography of the Chevalier de Guise (Page 17 -Summary notes)
Mme. de La Fayette sketches Guise’s later history how he planned to conquer Rhodes but death prevented him. In fact her history is incorrect — he did go to Rhodes).2 Mme de Lafayette presents a very selective history
This was the period of the wars of religion with their bigotry and savagery. We are told the story of the incredible indiscretion of Mme de Clèves’s uncle le Vidame de Chartres. Having gained the friendship and trust of the Queen, the Vidame rashly betrayed his undertakings to her by having affairs secretly with other women. Mme de Lafayette gives a very brief account of Catherine of Medici’s revenge against the disloyal Vidame: (Page 104):
"Leur liaison se rompit, et elle le perdit ensuite a la conjuration d'Amboise, où il se trouva embarrassé."She does not elaborate on the violent details of this period of civil and religious unrest: There was a conspiracy by French Huguenots and others opposed to the Guises in 1560. The conspirators planned to seize the King and Queen at the court of Amboise. The plot was discovered by the Guises. Their reactions showed great ruthlessness and many of those believed to be implicated were executed. Even though the Reformation was then shaking the foundations of European society, these events get the briefest of mentions in this novel. She tells us (page 4 text), that the Cardinal de Lorraine used his wit and knowledge to defend the: “la religion catholique qui commençoit d’être attaquée.”
Mme de Lafayette has certainly toned down the harshness of the accounts given by the contemporary historians, such as Brantôme, who are her sources.
For example, when the authoress tells us the story of Châtelart’s obsessive love of the dauphiness, her account is not all explicit. Madame de Lafayette tells us (Page 5 Summary Notes) :
…ce fut en le voyant souvent qu’il prit le commencement de cette malheureuse passion qui lui ôta la raison, et qui lui coûta la vie. (Page 19 –text)
She does not tell us the harsh, unseemly details, which she would have known from the history written by Brantôme. Châtelart was, in fact, twice found hiding in Mary Stuart’s bedroom and was executed for his audacity.
In her history lesson to her daughter, Mme. de Chartres tells how Diane, then a beautiful woman, saved her father, when he was to be beheaded for treason. She says that Diane: ….fit si bien (je ne sais par quels moyens) qu’elle obtint la vie de son père.
The historian Brantôme is much more blunt in his suggestion about what she did.
Similarly, whereas history tells us that le prince de Condé was a hunchback, the novel describes him with careful delicacy as having a "un corps peu favorisé de la nature."
Perhaps there is the same tendency in her portrait of Nemours. The historians show him as an unscrupulous betrayer of women. He broke his pledged word to Francoise de Rohan, seduced her and abandoned her to her shame.
She gives a more gentle, more polite, more refined view of 16th Century French concentrating on princely diplomacy and noble galanterie.
(N.B. Galanterie means homage and favours rendered to ladies).But she does show court intrigue Diane de Poitiers page 29 text
The brilliance of the court
The big court wedding of the Duke of Lorraine took place the next day and she saw Nemours there. In the following days she saw him constantly at tennis with the King, tilting at the ring.To her, Nemours seemed to surpass all others in his appearance and in his wit and he made a great impression on her.
Nemours was strongly attracted to her. Seeing each other often, and each recognising the other as the most perfect in the court, inevitably they got infinite pleasure from their frequent meetings.
But the other side
Mme. de Chartres makes an apology for this historical account, but her daughter feels she needs to know the factions at the court. She had not realised until recently the enmity between the Constable and the Queen as their conduct does not reveal this.
Her mother warns about the hypocrisy of the court.After her story of Diane
In explanation some critics have said that this is really a novel describing the court of Louis XIV - and it is probable that the galant noblemen and noblewomen described in the book fit more easily in the background of the court of Louis XIV than the rougher, more turbulent court of Henri II.
Conclusion The presentation of history in the book may not entirely satisfy the historian, but if we concern ourselves with the adaptation of history to create a work of art, we can see much to admire.
The skill with which the novelist uses history
1 The fictitious story of the Princesse de Clèves is skilfully interwoven with
the events of history. Some examples:1 Mme de Chartres finds all suitable matches for her daughter blocked because of the intrigues at court. The closeness of the Vidame to the Queen, led to all these problems. Nevers, as a friend of
Diane de Poitiers opposed the choice of his second son. The Cardinal
of Lorraine who was seeking the favour of the Queen opposed the marriage of her brother to Mlle. de Chartres out of hatred for the Vidame.2 The first meeting between Mlle de Clèves and Nemours was sudden and dramatic because of real political events.
She had not seen Nemours previously because he had left for Brussels before she arrived at the court. There he was awaiting the completion of the preparations for his journey to see Elizabeth I in London, with the possibility of their marriage. (Page 7 Summary notes)3 Nemours loses interest in Elizabeth I because of his love for
Mlle de Clèves - (The contemporary historian suggests merely that other women perhaps distracted Nemours) (Page 8 Summary notes)4 It is when Nemours and the King are choosing their horses for the royal tournament that Nemours has his accident and Mme de Clèves by the concern she feels involuntarily reveals her love. (Page 17 Summary notes)
5 The incident of the letter (Page 18 Summary notes) is bound in with the historical event of the liaison between the Vidame and Catherine of Medici.
6 The King chooses Prince de Clèves and his wife to escort, his daughter, the Princess Elizabeth, to Spain. This project permits M de Clèves to trick his wife to reveal that she and Nemours are in love. (Page 24 Summary notes)
The artistic justification for her selection and refinement of history
Although the historical background of the novel is fascinating and her technique in writing history may engage us, it is on Mme de Lafayette the writer of a great work of literature that our attention is focussed.
The refinement that historians criticise has its artistic justification. It is a function of the aesthetic stylisation of the material. She takes the rough individualised characters of the history and idealises them achieving elegance in the classical manner, in the exactly the same way that Racine makes Nero and Pyrrhus into polite 17th Century French courtiers.
The authoress moves in from the particular and the concrete to the general and the abstract. As a result, the novel can take place on a psychological plane.
This is the achievement of the novel to provide a study of fascinating psychological complexity in an accurate historical background.